Golden Age of Athens List of Art and Accomplishements
Curated/Reviewed past Matthew A. McIntosh
Public Historian
Brewminate
Introduction
Fifth-century Athens is the Greek city-state of Athens in the fourth dimension from 480 to 404 BC. Formerly known as the Golden Age of Athens, the afterwards function beingness the Historic period of Pericles, information technology was buoyed by political hegemony, economical growth and cultural flourishing. The period began in 478 BC, after the defeat of the Persian invasion, when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known equally the Delian League, confronted the Persians to go on the liberated Asian Greek cities costless. Later peace was fabricated with Persia in the mid-5th century BC, what started equally an alliance of independent city-states became an Athenian empire later Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the edifice of the Athenian Acropolis, put one-half its population on the public payroll, and maintained its position as the ascendant naval ability in the Greek globe.
With the empire'south funds, armed forces dominance and its political fortunes guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides all lived and worked in 5th-century BC Athens, equally did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the dr. Hippocrates and the philosophers Plato and Socrates. Athens's patron goddess was Athena, from whom information technology derived the proper name.
The Principles of Pericles
During the golden age, Athenian military and external affairs were mostly entrusted to the 10 generals who were elected each year by the x tribes of citizens, who could be relied on rather than the variable-quality magistrates chosen past lot under the commonwealth. These strategoi were given duties which included planning armed forces expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing diplomatic affairs. During the time of the ascendancy of Ephialtes every bit leader of the democratic faction, Pericles was his deputy. When Ephialtes was assassinated for overthrowing the elitist Council of the Aeropagus, Pericles stepped in and was elected in 445 BC, a post he held continuously until his death in 429 BC, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.
Pericles was a great speaker; this quality brought him tremendous success in the Assembly, presenting his vision of politics. One of his virtually pop reforms was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the misthophoria (μισθοφορία, which literally means paid function), a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts as jurors. This way, these citizens were able to dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this system, Pericles succeeded in keeping the courts full of jurors (Ath. Pol. 27.iii), and in giving the people experience in public life. As Athens' ruler, he made the city the first and most important polis of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.
The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding matters of state in the Assembly. Athenian citizens were complimentary and but owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved equality of speech in the Assembly: the give-and-take of a poor person had the aforementioned worth every bit that of a rich person. The censorial classes did not disappear, simply their ability was more than limited; they shared the financial and military offices but they did non accept the power of distributing privileges.
The principle of equality granted to all citizens had dangers, since many citizens were incapable of exercising political rights due to their extreme poverty or ignorance. To avoid this, Athenian democracy applied itself to the task of helping the poorest in this manner:
- Concession of salaries to public functionaries.
- To seek and supply work to the poor.
- To grant lands to dispossessed villagers.
- Public assistance for war widows, invalids, orphans and indigents.
- Other social assist.
About importantly, and in order to emphasize the concept of equality and discourage corruption and patronage, practically all public offices that did non require a particular expertise were appointed by lot and non by election. Among those selected past lot to a political body, specific part was always rotated so that every single member served in all capacities in turn. This was meant to ensure that political functions were instituted in such a style as to run smoothly, regardless of each official's private chapters.
These measures announced to take been carried out in great measure out since the testimony has come up to the states from, (amongst others, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC), who comments:
Everyone who is capable of serving the city meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor borough condition…
Institutions
The Magistrates
The magistrates were people who occupied a public post and formed the assistants of the Athenian state. They were submitted to rigorous public command. The magistrates were called by lot, using fava beans. Blackness and white beans were put in a box and depending on which colour the person drew out they obtained the post or not. This was a way of eliminating the personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and employ of favors. There were just two categories of posts non called by lot, just past election in the Popular Assembly. These were strategos, or general, and magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that pregnant qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate's post did not last more than a year, including that of the strategoi and in this sense the connected selection of Pericles year afterwards year was an exception. At the end of every year, a magistrate would take to requite an account of his administration and utilise of public finances.
The most honored posts were the ancient archontes, or archons in English. In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian land, but in the Historic period of Pericles they lost their influence and power, although they still presided over tribunals.
Every year the citizens elected ten "strategoi" (singular "strategos"), or generals, who served as both military officers and diplomats. It was through this position that Pericles shaped fifth-century BC Athens.
At that place were also more than than forty public assistants officers and more than lx to police force the streets, the markets, to bank check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.
The Associates of the People
The Assembly (in Greek, ἐκκλησία, that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it brought together in assembly all the citizens of Athens, nonetheless the maximum number which came to besiege is estimated at 6,000 participants. The gathering identify was a space on the hill called Pnyx, in front of the Acropolis. The sessions sometimes lasted from dawn to dusk. The ecclesia occurred twoscore times a year.
The Assembly decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. Decisions relied on ancient laws which had long been in strength. Bills were voted on in 2 stages: kickoff the Assembly itself decided and afterwards the Council or βουλή gave definitive approval.
The Council or Boule
The Quango or Boule (βουλή) consisted of 500 members, 50 from each tribe, performance as an extension of the Assembly. These were chosen past adventure, using the organization described earlier, from which they were familiarly known as "councillors of the edible bean"; officially they were known every bit prytaneis (πρύτανις, meaning "primary" or "teacher").
The council members examined and studied legal projects, supervised the magistrates and saw that daily administrative details were on the right path. They oversaw the city state'south external affairs. They also met at Pnyx colina, in a identify expressly prepared for the event. The 50 prytaneis in power were located on grandstands carved into the rock. They had stone platforms which they reached by means of a small staircase of three steps. On the start platform were the secretaries and scribes; the orator would climb upwardly to the 2nd.
Finances
The economic resources of the Athenian State were not excessive. All the glory of Athens in the Age of Pericles, its constructions, public works, religious buildings, sculptures, etc. would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos simply Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't condom enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.
Other minor incomes came from community fees and fines. In times of war a special taxation was levied on rich citizens. These citizens were likewise charged permanently with other taxes for the proficient of the urban center. This was called the system of liturgy. The taxes were used to maintain the triremes which gave Athens peachy naval ability and to pay and maintain a chorus for large religious festivals. It is believed that rich Athenian men saw it as an accolade to sponsor the triremes (probably because they became leaders of it for the period they supported it) or the festivals and they often engaged in competitive donating.
Athens in the Age of Pericles
Overview
The Athenian elite lived modestly and without neat luxuries, compared to the elites of other ancient states. In that location were very few great fortunes and land buying was non concentrated: 71–73% of the citizen population endemic 60–65% of the country, whereas the Gini coefficient for denizen population has been calculated as 0.708.[1] The economy was based on maritime commerce and manufacturing, according to Amemiya'southward estimates, 56% of Athens' GDP was derived from manufacturing.[2] Agronomics was besides important, simply it did not produce enough to feed the populace, so most food had to be imported (it is estimated that the conveying chapters of Attica'due south soil was between 84,000 and 150,000,[3] while the population was 300,000 to 350,000 in 431 BC).
The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The nearly important one was the Panathenaia in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out one time a year in May and in one case every four years in July, in which the town presented a new veil (peplos) to the sometime wooden statue of Athena Poliada. Phidias immortalized this procession in the frieze of the Parthenon, which is currently at the British Museum. In the July Panathenaia (Bang-up Panathenaia), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received amphoras full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other important festival was the dramatic Dionysia in award of Dionysus where tragedies and comedies were performed.
Education
The instruction of boys began in their ain home up until the age of seven when they had to attend school. There, they had several teachers who taught them to read and write, as well as subjects such equally mathematics and music. Boys as well had to have function in physical educational activity classes where they were prepared for hereafter military service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At eighteen they served in the army and were instructed on how to carry arms. Physical teaching was very intense and many of the boys ended upwardly becoming true athletes. In add-on to these compulsory lessons, the students had the risk to discuss and learn from the great philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time. Some poor people had to stay at home and aid their parents. Yet, Aristophanes and Socrates, though they were poor, became famous and successful.
Women
The primary role of gratuitous women in classical Athens was to ally and carry children.[4] The emphasis on union as a way to perpetuate the family through childbearing had inverse from archaic Athens, when (at to the lowest degree amongst the powerful) marriages were as much nearly making beneficial connections as they were nigh perpetuating the family unit.[v] Married women were responsible for the day-to-twenty-four hours running of the household. At marriage, they causeless responsibility for the prosperity of their husband's household and the health of its members.[6] Their primary responsibilities were bearing, raising and caring for children, weaving cloth and making clothes.[7] They would also have been responsible for caring for sick household members, supervising slaves, and ensuring that the household had sufficient nutrient.[8]
In classical Athenian marriages, husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce.[4] The woman's closest male relative (who would exist her kyrios if she were not married) could also do so, manifestly fifty-fifty confronting the couple's wishes.[nine] Later on divorce, the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually so the adult female's livelihood would proceed and she could remarry.[ten] If there were children at the time of the divorce, they remained in their father'due south house and he remained responsible for their upbringing.[11]
In some cases, Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities equally Athenian men.[12] However, Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at police force compared to their male person counterparts. Similar slaves and metics, they were denied political freedom, citizenship and voting rights,[13] being excluded from the police force courts and the Assembly.[14] Women ideally remained apart from men.[15] Notwithstanding information technology was recognised that an ideology of separation could not exist practiced by many Athenians. In Politics, Aristotle asked: "How is information technology possible to prevent the wives of the poor from going out of doors?"[sixteen] In do, only wealthy families would take been able to implement this ideology.[17] Women's responsibilities would take forced them to leave the house frequently – to fetch h2o from the well or wash clothing, for example. Although wealthy families may accept had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house, most would not have had enough slaves to forbid free women from leaving at all.[18]
The cult of Athena Polias (the city'due south eponymous goddess) was central to Athenian society, reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure.[seven] Women played a fundamental function in the cult; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of great importance,[19] and the priestess could utilise her influence to support political positions. Co-ordinate to Herodotus, earlier the Battle of Salamis the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena (which lived on the Acropolis) had already left.[19]
Arts and Literature
Overview
Historians consider the Athenian 5th and 6th centuries BC every bit the Golden Age of sculpture and architecture. In this period the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this menstruum is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly sanctuaries and temples. Some examples from this period are:
- The reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
- The reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, which was destroyed past an earthquake.
- The reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens, the marble city for the glory of the gods. The site had suffered from a fire started by the Persians and lay in ruins for more thirty years. Pericles initiated its reconstruction with white marble brought from the nearby quarry of Pentelicon. The best architects, sculptors and workers were gathered to complete the Acropolis. The construction lasted 20 years. Financing came from the Delian League. When finished, information technology was the grandest and most perfect monument in the history of Greek fine art.
Sculptors
Phidias is considered the greatest sculptor of this era. He created colossal gold-plated marble statues ("chryselephantine statues"), generally face and hands, which were highly celebrated and admired in his own time: Athena, situated in the interior of the Parthenon, whose splendor reached the true-blue through the open doors, and Zeus in the Sanctuary of Olympia, considered in its age and in later ages to be i of the marvels of the world.
According to Pliny the Elderberry'due south Natural History, in order to conserve the marble of these sculptures, oil receptacles were placed in the temples so that the ivory would not cleft.
The other neat sculptors of this century were Myron and Polycletus.
Ceramics
During this age, the production of ceramic pieces was abundant. Amphorae were produced in mass quantity due to the heavy trading with other cities all around the Mediterranean. Large show of amphorae from this era can be found effectually every major ancient port too as in the Aegean sea. During this period is likewise seen an abundance of white background ceramics which are much more delicate than the previously pop yellow and black groundwork ceramics. These ceramics were often used to keep perfume or for mortuary rites, including decorations on graves.
Theater
The theater reached its greatest height in the fifth century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theater with a series of applied and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the choruses and actors. By this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theatrical performances served the moral and intellectual education of the people. Plays were made past men and usually for men, and this platform was often used to reinforce the patriarchy.[xx]
Athens became the great city of Greek theater. Theatrical performances lasted eight consecutive hours and were performed as part of a competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. While the decor of the provisional theaters was very simple, the permanent theatrical venues of ancient Athens eventually became more than sumptuous and elaborate. No matter the performance venue, plays were performed past, at most, iii actors, who wore masks to identify them with the characters they portrayed; they were accompanied past a chorus who sang and danced.
The dramatic poets from this era whose plays accept survived are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes.
Philosophers and Writers
The Aureate Age featured some of the most renowned Western philosophers of all fourth dimension. Chief among these were Socrates, whose ideas exist primarily in a serial of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his own; Plato; and Plato's pupil, Aristotle.
Other notable philosophers of the Golden Age included Anaxagoras; Democritus (who first inquired as to what substance lies within all thing, the primeval known proposal of what is now called the atom or its sub-units); Empedocles; Hippias; Isocrates; Parmenides; Heraclitus; and Protagoras.
In the second half of the fifth century BC the proper noun of sophist (from the Greek sophistês, skilful, teacher, man of wisdom) was given to the teachers that gave pedagogy on diverse branches of science and cognition in exchange for a fee.
In this historic period, Athens was the "school of Greece." Pericles and his mistress Aspasia had the opportunity to associate with not just the keen Athenians thinkers of their 24-hour interval, but besides other Greek and foreign scholars. Amongst them were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, who reconstructed Peiraeus, too equally the historians Herodotus (484–425), Thucydides (460–395), and Xenophon (427–335).
Athens was as well the capital letter of eloquence. Since the late fifth century BC, eloquence had been elevated to an art form. There were the logographers (λογογράφος) who wrote courses and created a new literary form characterized by the clarity and purity of the language. It became a lucrative profession. Later, in the 4th century BC, the orators Isocrates and Demosthenes also became famous.
End of the Age of Pericles
From 461 until his death in 429 BC Pericles was active in the government of Athens, an era of splendour and a standard of living college than any previously experienced. All was well within the internal government, however discontent within the Delian League was e'er increasing. The foreign affairs policies adopted past Athens did not produce the best results; members of the Delian League were increasingly dissatisfied. Athens was the urban center-state that dominated and subjugated the rest of Greece and these oppressed citizens wanted their independence.
Previously, in 550 BC, a like league between the cities of the Peloponnessus—directed and dominated past Sparta—had been founded. Taking advantage of the general dissent of the Greek urban center-states, this Peloponnesian League began to confront Athens. Afterwards a long lasting series of poorly managed, hawkish policies, (c. 431 BC) and the ensuing Peloponnesian War the city of Athens finally lost its independence in 338 BC, when Philip Two of Republic of macedonia conquered the rest of Greece.
Endnotes
- http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/ober/051001.pdf
- "Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece," Routledge, 2007
- http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf
- Pomeroy 1994, p. 62
- Osborne 1997, p. 28
- Fantham et al. 1994, p. 101
- Gould 1980, p. 51
- Xenophon, Oeconomicus, 7.35–7.37
- Gould 1980, p. 43
- Pomeroy 1994, p. 63
- Pomeroy 1994, p. 65
- Patterson 2007, p. 170
- Rhodes 1992, p. 95
- Schaps 1998, p. 178
- Dover 1973, p. 61
- Aristotle, Politics, 1300a.
- Dover 1973, p. 69
- Cohen 1989, pp. eight–9
- Pomeroy 1994, p. 75
- Allan, Davin (27 March 2013). "The Ideal Epitome: The Depiction of Women in Fifth Century Drama". Literatured. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
Originally published by Wikipedia, 04.xi.2003, nether a Artistic Eatables Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license.
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